Sighs of the conflict: Impact, coping mechanisms and rebuilding of lives in Dang

Original Nepali version by Shree Ram Chaudhary and Bhagi Ram Chaudhary,
Translation by Purna Chaudhary, Sabina Bhattarai and Shila Khulal,
Edited by Simon Robins

Table of contents

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgement

1 Introduction

2 Dang District
2.1 Location and history
2.2 Conflict in Dang
2.3 Incidents in Dang

3 SEED – Youth awareness and conflict transformation
3.1 Establishment of SEED
3.2 Activities of SEED
3.3 Learning from conflict victims
3.4 Threats to work during conflict

4 Stories of conflict victims
4.1 Unfortunate Minas
4.2 Chhali’s wish
4.3 Meghi’s pursuit
4.4 Binita’s plea
4.5 Sita’s struggle
4.6 Sita Ram on way to non-violence
4.7 Sabitra’s loyalty

5 Conclusion

6 Recommendations


Afterword: Following publication of the Nepali edition of “Sighs of the conflict”
Foreword
Where it is a prerequisite for social transformation violence may be necessary, but this is unlikely to be accepted by those injured and victimised in conflict. Shree Ram Chaudhary has created this book documenting incidents of violence and grief from the Deukhuri valley, Dang: these stories are those of families unconnected with the parties to the armed conflict, but who became their victims. The book discusses the fate of 12 Dalits killed by the army while looking for timber in a local forest to build electricity poles. It talks about the indigenous Tharu families murdered by security forces while bringing the annual harvest home. The book also talks of the villagers who were brutally killed without cause by security forces while they were preparing buffalo meat for a feast day.

We get a heartbreaking sense of the conflict from the story of Radha Nepali who committed suicide following the murder of her innocent husband by the security forces, leaving her 10 year-old daughter and one year-old son behind. These are the innocent, powerless victims, caught in a fight between those with power. How did these families manage to survive, even after the death of the heads of their families? The stories told here, from a handful of people from Dang, reveal the pain, struggle and pathos of all the victims of Nepal’s conflict.

Following the peace agreement between the Maoists and the government, the bloodshed has now stopped. The dominance and cruelty of those with guns has ceased. Those political leaders who defended the use of force say they have changed politically and ideologically. The Maoist supremo Prachanda reiterates that the phase of armed conflict has come to an end; both Maoists and the Government agree that the nation has entered a new era. We hear claims from both sides that Nepal could become a new Switzerland or Singapore, setting an example to the world through new political strategies. We still don’t know if the children orphaned by the conflict dream of Switzerland and Singapore, but I personally feel the Government should protect these children from cold; at least provide them with sweaters to cover themselves, and make provisions to wipe their running noses and prevent them from hunger and disease. This is also the request of ‘Sighs of the conflict’. Thank you.

Dambar Chemjong
Sociology and Anthropology Department
Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
November 2006


Preface
Maoists attacked Ghorahi, the headquarters of Dang district, on 23 November 2001. Three days later a state of emergency was declared throughout the country and curfew imposed in Dang. Although the emergency was later withdrawn, the curfew in Dang continued for four and half years. This book has its origin in the documentation of typical incidents that occurred during this period. However, this book makes no claim to completeness; it has merely noted incidents that occurred in the areas where the Society for Environment Education Development (SEED) was working, and these have been recorded based on the responses of local people.

This book has been prepared in collaboration with workers from the area, children of conflict victims, youth and women: during the study all members of the study-group gained the confidence to try their hand as writers. I have the hope that after the publication of this book all victims will similarly feel able to tell their stories more freely. This book will also allow people to understand the work and activities of SEED.

Since this is the first attempt at such a project, the study team has been under extreme pressure, but their hard work and patience have paid off and they have succeeded to get this book published. I would like to thank team leader Shree Ram Chaudhary; my special thanks go to team members Amrita Chaudhary, Rekha Shah, Purna Chaudhary, Devendra Chaudhary, Apsara Pariyar, Man Bahadur Chaudhary, Santosh Chaudhary and the others. I am equally grateful to all who have told their stories in the book.

Similarly, I would like to express my gratitude to Niwano Peace Foundation, Japan, and its coordinator Ms Masako Tanaka for her support in making this publication a success. The foundation has helped us in all aspects: financial, conceptual and technical. Finally, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my dear friend Shree Krishna Sarbahari, who helped edit the document and provided valuable advice and suggestions. I look forward to continued support from all of these people in the future.

We at last have something to celebrate after 11 years of conflict: the peace accord signed between the Maoists and the government on 21 November 2006 has laid the foundation for lasting peace in the country. Let us hope the country never again faces such an emergency.

Bhagi Ram Chaudhary
Chairperson
SEED
Dang, Tulsipur



Acknowledgement
Whilst peace is at the heart of all civilisations, conflict has always been a means of social transformation. Since ancient times there have been conflicts, both big and small, that have led to changes in society; it seems to be an almost natural process that conflict becomes violent whenever injustice and tyranny take hold. Such positive conflict is unavoidable to achieve lasting peace and in practice ordinary citizens have the responsibility for transforming society through their own sacrifice. The contributions of such ordinary people however have been neglected in the writing of history: only the leaders and the parties involved in the conflict have been considered. Whilst history blows the trumpet of the powerful and of the victors, the blood and sweat of the common man are rarely taken into account.

To respect the contribution of ordinary people, SEED initiated the process of documenting the impact of the conflict. This publication aims to provide some modest motivation to future generations as to how they can consider the experiences they have lived through and tell their stories to the world.

The spirit of SEED is the voice of the people and its main objective is to advocate for the poor, Dalits and indigenous Janajatis. This is why we have tried to document their painful past in this book. Beyond this, the experience of women and children tormented by the conflict is given special consideration. This book tries to address the issue of ordinary people as the means of social transformation, even during the conflict. How did they gain enough courage to live peacefully and inspire others to maintain peace in such chaos? We have tried our best to incorporate such issues here.

Readers of this book will understand the terrible fate of the Tharus and Dalits of Dang during the insurgency. This book has been shaped by the stories of small children, women and youth; their journals, songs and paintings. All of those involved in the study have been empowered by the process of documentation.

With this book, I hope that we can change the preconceived notion that only the learned have the privilege to document their experience and to publish books. The experiences we had talking with victims and documenting their stories, including those of children and women, made us realise that we must continue such work for broader social gain. The presence of the victims themselves in the process of documentation made it easier for us to understand their experiences and sentiments and record them accurately. The victims also gained an ideas and skills on documentation.

Although SEED worked throughout the conflict, only now has it been able to make a contribution in documenting the impact of the conflict. The financial and technical support of Niwano Peace Foundation, Japan, and Ms. Masako Tanaka has made the documentation and this publication possible. We must thank them: without their support it would have been impossible to bring the inner voices of conflict affected women and children to public attention. Without their support, victims’ experiences would have been confined to notebooks and organisational records. I would particularly like to thank Amrita Chaudhary, Apsara Pariyaar, Man Bahadur Chaudhary and Santosh Chaudhary for their tireless efforts in the process of documentation.

I must also thank Krishna Sarbahari, who helped to edit this book despite his busy schedule. I am grateful to the renowned anthropologist Dambar Chemjong who spared valuable time to write the preface for this book.

In conclusion, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the women, children and the whole Dangali community, who directly and indirectly helped to make this endeavour a success.

Shree Ram Chaudhary
Team leader
People’s Documentation for Peace


Dang
1 Introduction
Background
History is dominated by stories of power, and is written by the powerful. There are many books related to conflict and its management, almost all published either by academics or those doing the fighting. They say little about the ordinary people caught up in conflict and fail to give us the perspective of those directly affected by conflict. Documentation of their experiences, outlook and reactions are crucial to understanding conflict, but this task is rarely undertaken.

In Nepal such an exercise has never been done. Now, after the conflict, it is important to record the experience of the poor, powerless and marginalized. This book, “Sighs of the conflict – Impact, coping mechanisms and rebuilding of lives in Dang” is an effort to do this.

Objectives
To share experiences and feelings in the style of peer-counselling
To document the daily activities and experiences of conflict victims
To record the conflict and its implications
To empower conflict victims.

Methodology
This book has been prepared through the use of participant observation, the journals of those affected by conflict, and by listening to victims’ stories. To authenticate reports, various books and other sources have been accessed.

This is not an academic work and so documentation was begun from our own locality using locally available means. Dang, SEED’s working district, was selected for the study for convenience; documentation was straightforward and readily supervised, and the area accessible.

No special study group was formed; the group comprised children, women, adults and older people from the selected areas. To add rigor and oversight, a team leader and volunteers were also assigned.

After the documentation procedure was finalised, volunteers were selected. The criteria of the selection were: he/she should come from the locality and, if possible, should be a victim who had passed School Leaving Certificate or intermediate studies. An orientation class for volunteers was organised on 29 July 2006 in Tulsipur. The coordinator of ‘People’s Documentation for Peace of Nepal’, Masako Tanaka, who inspired the study group, facilitated the session.

2 Dang District
2.1 Location and history

Dang district is located in the Mid West development region of Nepal, some 12 hours drive from Kathmandu. It lies between 213 and 2,048 metres above sea level and has an area of 295,500 hectares. Topographically, Dang comprises the Dang and Deukhuri valleys. Dang valley is situated between the Mahabharata and Churia ranges and Deukhuri between the Churia and Dudawa ranges. Geographically the district is divided into the Churia range of hills and the inner Tarai.

The district has 39 VDCs and two Municipalities. Total population is 462,380 with 228,958 males and 233,422 females. According to statistics, there are 147,328 Tharus, 105,146 Chhetris in Dang and 55,711 Magars. Other groups present include Brahmins, Dalits, Sanyasi, Yadavs, Thakuri, Muslim and Newars.

It is believed that Tharus lived in the region from the Stone Age. According to David Seddon, Tharus have occupied the area from around 300,000 years ago. It is also assumed that Dang derives its name from a Tharu king, Dangisharan, who ruled the area some five thousand years ago.

Dang is a district with a unique historical, economic, political, social and cultural identity. It is a fertile land and a major habitat of Tharus. Before 1912, when the new land management system came into operation, only Tharus were settled in Dang, but after the eradication of malaria they started migrating from the district. At this time Tharus owned 90 per cent of all land in the district. Later, non-Tharus started migrating to the district and the Government, and powerful local leaders captured land and enslaved Tharus: this is a major cause of the historical conflict in Dang. To win back their land the Tharus struggled hard for years and initiated efforts at a land revolution. Gumara Tharu, leader of the farmers’ movement, who famously said: ‘land belongs to those who plough and houses belong to those who scrub’ was shot dead by the then administration on 21 July 1960.

There is a long history of incidents of domination, oppression and exploitation of Tharus, who have been in revolt since Panchayat rule began; many sacrificed their lives fighting for their rights. However, these incidents never benefited any of the Tharu communities, only landlords benefited. Even after the political transformation in 1990, the Tharu community gained nothing: the nature of domination changed, but fundamentally the oppression remained unchanged. This fuelled anger and dissatisfaction in the hearts of Tharus towards the Nepali state and its rulers.

2.2 Conflict in Dang
Initially the Maoist revolution had little impact in Dang, since the neighbouring districts of Rolpa, Rukum and Salyan were focal points of the ‘People’s war’. When, in later years, the Maoists realised the strategic importance of Dang, their interest in the district increased, as did the impact of the conflict on it. The domination of the people by the state further stimulated Maoist agitation, and both the state and Maoists competed to parade their power in Dang where poor Tharus, Dalits and all underprivileged communities ultimately became the victims.

Maoists attacked Ghorahi, headquarters of Dang, on 23 November 2001, killing 37 security personnel, including 14 soldiers of the then Royal Nepal Army. The Maoists succeeded in capturing a large cache of weapons and the attack ended negotiations that were taking place between Maoists and the Government. The Government responded by announcing a nationwide state of emergency from 26 November 2001. The situation in Dang continued to worsen and insecurity reined in the district. The infuriated security forces began undertaking careless and one sided actions in various parts of Dang: five days after the declaration of the emergency state forces killed 11 innocent Tharu farmers from Bargaddi village. Maoists took advantage of the people’s desire for vengeance and recruited large numbers of Tharu youth into their ranks. The homeland of the innocent Tharus turned into a theatre of war, grief and lamentation. Data from the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), released on 30 August 2006, stated that after 2001 a total of 936 people were abducted nationally (these are still missing); 563 by state forces, 315 by the Maoists and 58 by unidentified groups. In Dang alone security forces abducted 56 people and the Maoists two.

According to data from the Informal Sector Service Centre (INSEC), a total of 686 people were killed in Dang between 13 February 1996 and 9 September 2006. State forces killed 422 people: 10 female, 312 male and 100 not unidentified by gender. Similarly, Maoists killed 264 people: 7 female and 257 male. Data shows that both sides targeted men more than women and that the state killed four times more people than the Maoists.

Table 1 : Number of people killed in Dang district
Perpetrator/ Female/ Male/ Unknown/ Total
Government forces/ 10 / 312 / 100/ 422
Maoist forces/ 7 / 257 / 0/ 264

Total/ 17 / 569/ 100/ 686

Although Chhetris have the second highest population in the district, they occupy first position on death counts, i.e. 220. Local scholar Bharat Dahal says, “Traditionally, Chhetris are engaged in security and the armed forces: their number is high in both armed forces and hence their death rate is high.” Tharus comprises the second highest number of deaths. Megh Raj Ghimire, principal of Gyan Jyoti Primary School, reports: “A total of 200 Tharus have died because Tharus were predominantly in the role of fighters in both forces.” Intellectuals say Tharus are perceived as Maoists by the government and many of them were killed as a result of false allegations against them.

Table 2: Number of dead by caste and ethnic group
Caste/ Total Population/No. of Dead
Chhetri/ 105,146/ 220
Tharu/ 147,328/ 200
Magar/ 55,711/ 88
Dalit (Kami, Damai Sarki)/ 44,921/ 78
Hill Brahmin/ 49,906/ 58
Newar/ 4,094/ 14
Others/ 55,274/ 28
Total/ 462,380/ 686
2.3 Incidents in Dang
The Khalyan incident

The anger of the security forces following the Maoist attack on Ghorahi on 23 November 2001 was directed towards poor Tharu farmers of Bargaddi village in Tribhuban Municipality-3. Alleging them to be Maoists, security forces killed 11 villagers who were working their landlord’s field in Khalyan. Those killed were: Jagmaan Chaudhary, Sati Lal Chaudhary, Krishna Chaudhary, Aasha Ram Chaudhary, Chona Chaudhary, Khusi Ram Chaudhary, Chiju Chaudhary, Bishram Chaudhary, Laxman Chaudhary, Somlal Chaudhary and Prasad Chaudhary.

Dilli Raj’s fate
At midnight on 1 April 2002 Dilli Raj Adhikari, 58 years old, of Urahari village, Urahari-3, was woken by a prolonged knocking at his door. “Who is it?” he asked from his veranda. A familiar voice answered, “Please come downstairs for a while brother.” Dilli Raj rushed downstairs, concerned something might have happened to one of the villagers. His wife tried to stop him saying, 'It’s midnight, why do you have to go?” He replied that he would return soon and went downstairs. “Someone might be in need,” he said and opened his front door. A group of Maoists were at the door. They said they needed him for a while, but took him some three kilometres from his home and beat him almost to the point of death: they broke his legs, ribs and spine. Dilli Raj had to spend some Rs 35,000 for his subsequent treatment, while the government covered other expenses. He has survived, but is now handicapped. It was later revealed that the Maoists had punished him on the understanding that he was a government spy. He has since received no support; currently he is disabled, and living with his two sons, daughter-in-laws and three grandsons.

The Pendya incident
Tharu farmers were celebrating the Festival of Pendya, on 9 December 2001 in Laxmipur VDC, as they did every year after having taken in the annual harvest. Feasting throughout the day, they were dancing and singing that night. At some point, the army surrounded the house and shot and killed 11 innocent people. The security forces later justified their action by declaring the dead to have been Maoists, who had allegedly broken curfew.

The Kathberuwa event
The villagers of Kathberuwa, Bela-2, were roofing their houses with hay on 17 June 2002 when an army search group arrested seven villagers. Two of them, Chatak Bahadur Chaudhary and Ganesh Chaudhary, were shot dead on the spot. The remaining five: Uday Ram Chaudhary, Hari Lal Chaudhary, Kedar Nath Chaudhary, Dhani Ram Chaudhary and Bhim Bahadur Chaudhary were taken to the Musot River and brutally murdered.

The Rajakot jungle incident
The villagers of Kauwaghari, Goltakuri-8, were on their way to a local forest in search of timber to make electricity poles on 30 June 2002. There were three groups consisting of both villagers and VDC representatives. On their way to the forest, the second group encountered security forces assigned to protect of Rajakot tower. The first group was ahead and the third one far behind them. The villagers, who were carrying axes, were accused of being Maoists and were arrested by the soldiers. To prove their innocence the villagers gave their names, addresses and occupations, and explained why they were visiting the forest. They begged to be believed, but could not soften the soldiers’ hearts.

The soldiers ordered the villagers to strip, blindfolded them with their own clothes and then killed 12 of them then and there. Those killed belonged to Sarki, an untouchable caste specialised in leather works. One of the group, Shobha Ram Nepali, was able to escape by jumping down the hill: he became the only witness to the incident to survive. The bodies of the dead were never recovered. One of the dead was unmarried, one had married the same year and the others were married with children.

After the incident, the families of the 12 victims along with Dev Bahadur Sarki and the support of SEED, submitted an application for compensation to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC). On 16 May 2005 the NHRC declared the victims innocent and awarded Rs 50,000 to each of the bereaved families. Whilst SEED made efforts to ensure that families received this compensation from the District Administration Office, Dang, this never happened. Until today, SEED continues to urge the NHRC to make the money available to the victimised families.

After the death of their breadwinners, families were left helpless. To aid their self-reliance, SEED provide three months of training on painting and knitting to some family members. Families were able to knit sweaters for themselves and their children, and this also gave an opportunity for them to share their pain. SEED also supported the children of victims to attend school and provided them with school uniforms. Now at least the families are encouraged somewhat by seeing their children in education.

SEED also provided economic support to the families to create small businesses according to their needs, including goat rearing, vegetable farming and small shops. The economic problems of the households have lessened. Additionally, rights-based education is offered in the village, which has helped to change the villagers’ attitude from pessimism to optimism.

The event of Teej
Roughly two months after the Rajakot jungle incident on 8 September 2002 another horrific episode occurred in Baakhre village, Phoolbari-4. As part of the Teej festival some villagers were sharing buffalo meat when some security forces, in pursuit of Maoists, arrived at the village. The Maoists escaped past the villagers and the soldiers, alleging that the villagers were also with the Maoists, randomly fired on them, killing six. Ram Kumar Nepali, Top Bahadur B.K., Manoj Nepali, Choodamani Shrestha, Dharam Nepali and Top Bahadur Nepali died on the spot. Punaram B.K. and Bhakta Bahadur Nepali were forced to dig graves for the six, and the soldiers beat these two close to the point of death. Despite medical treatment Puna Ram B.K. died in October 2003 and Bhakta Bahadur Nepali died on 22 November. Altogether eight innocent people lost their lives in the incident.

Death of Hari Raj Dangi
Maoists made Hari Raj Dangi, 45, of Damar Gaun, Phoolbari-1 walk for nearly an hour from his home on 22 May 2004. They took him to Dhakana village of the same VDC and slit his throat. They murdered him in a community forest near a local school on the charge of corruption and of spying on Maoists. His widow, four daughters and a son are left behind, and are now dependent on a piece of land that can only sustain them with difficulty.
3 SEED - Youth awareness and conflict transformation
3.1 Establishment of SEED

After the Maoist attack on Ghorahi on 23 November 2001 the government drew up strong policies against the Maoists and initiated various search campaigns. The Maoists were equally ruthless and violent encounters between these two forces became routine.

The series of events described above, and others, made Tharu youths nervous and vulnerable. Since a majority of victims of such incidents were Dalits, Tharus or from other marginalised groups, they began asking various questions. They started discussing the reasons behind the victimhood of the marginalised groups, and also started analysing why the government and even the Maoists were prejudiced against them. Thinking along these lines led to the youths becoming organised and deciding to work on conflict transformation: from this SEED was born.

SEED, a local non-governmental organization was established in 2001 and registered at the Social Welfare Council, Kathmandu in the same year. It was also registered at the NGO Federation, Dang, and the NGO co-ordination committee. Its chief objectives are to raise awareness, improve living standards and organise stakeholders to ensure their rights. SEED has been working for conflict victims, the underprivileged, Dalits, orphans, widows and the elderly. Most of its programmes are centred on peace and governance, quality education at the primary level, and child rights.

Since its establishment SEED has been taking a holistic social approach and has been analysing social progress and transformation. It has been working hand-in-hand with local communities, local bodies and national and international agencies for conflict transformation. It started working with the notion that unless poverty is addressed at its roots, conflict transformation is impossible; it has been conducting various activities for poverty alleviation and conflict transformation.

Due to the dangerously unstable situation in the district during the conflict, discussions were initially held with the local authorities, VDC members and conflict victims on the mechanics of conducting SEED’s programmes and activities. During the conflict it was difficult to work with both victims and authorities, but it became necessary to identify ways to minimise the hazards of the conflict. With suggestions, inspiration and support from local groups, SEED started its work, beginning on a small scale.


3.2 Activities of SEED
In the first year of its establishment SEED received financial support from Manpur, Dhikpur, Halwar and Urahari VDCs; Goltakuri and Phoolbari VDCs expressed a commitment to work jointly with the organisation. With the active participation of local people and based upon local knowledge and suggestions, various strategies to support conflict victims were developed, that largely comprised three months knitting and painting training for female victim. During this training bereaved women from six VDCs had the opportunity to share their grievances. This programme also helped us to understand the anguish and sorrow of conflict victims and get to know them better.

National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) was impressed by the work SEED had begun with the Tharu community and the search for their historic identity and status, offered a partnership with SEED. The collection and documentation of Tharu history, traditionally transferred from one generation to another orally, has now been completed. Similarly, partnerships with local, national and international organisations increased. In partnership with Action Aid Nepal, SEED decided to continue to work for peace and security in Dang: the programme that began in 2003 goes on.

SEED also had the opportunity to gain experience in partnership with UK Department for International Development (DFID) in its community support programme from 2003-2004. SEED worked with United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2003 for peace and development. In partnership with Shapla Neer, a Japanese NGO, SEED conducted a workshop to share experiences and an educational tour for freed Kamaiyas in 2005. Since July 2006, a quality education programme for conflict-affected children is in operation in partnership with Save the Children - Japan. SEED is also working with the District Development Committee, District Health Office and Rapti Eye Hospital.

3.3 Learning from conflict victims
Arranging support for conflict victims, the poor, Dalits and Janajatis was challenging. Developing strategies in support of such people was risky due to the conflict between the Maoists and the state. Due to the local domination of the Maoists and the military operations of both sides, one question was ever present: how to support the victims of both sides? This was the biggest strategic question SEED faced.

Strategic directions
To work intensively during the conflict with the support and cooperation of local conflict victims, underprivileged groups, Dalits and Janajatis, at a time when other organizations were reducing their activities due to the conflict.

To keep proportional representation of Dalits, Janajatis and women in the central committee, executive board and as members of the organisation.

To develop partnership with Village Development Committees (VDCs) from the point of the organisation’s registration.

To establish peace from the grassroots level utilising local resources, skills and capacities.

To focus on those who were most victimised, especially women and children conflict victims.

To work in geographically remote and underprivileged communities that have been ignored by the government and non-governmental organisations.

To create an environment to unite all those conflict victims who are in dire straits due to the conflict and unable to trust anyone.

To raise hope and optimism in conflict victims.

To work through the women’s forum to assist victims to share both their pain and their pleasures with each other.

By experiencing the pain and bitterness of conflict-hit communities, SEED was brought closer to affected families every day of its work. When SEED began its programmes, women and children used to turn away or look at the floor while sharing their experiences; some used to leave without speaking. Some children used to hide in their homes whenever they saw new faces, since they thought that strangers were either Maoists or the army.

Those affected by conflict and their communities were unwilling to talk with unfamiliar faces. Those seeking to share their pain were unable to talk and could only cry. There was no option but to listen and wait patiently. But after a while SEED gained the confidence of people and victims became intimate with the organisation and shared whatever they wanted to. It created a comfortable environment for the organisation to work in all sectors. The organisation considered how to bring happiness back to these people and started advocacy for their civil liberties.

Where we developed a relationship with a community and gained the confidence of the people, we were able to work there in any situation. As we came closer to the people, their support and cooperation our work moved faster. The locals had effective access to information, counselling and assistance and started having faith and reliance on SEED. The organisation was also able to provide moral and physical support to the people in the event of any problem. Public auditing increased the transparency of the organisation and thus its acceptance among the people

Including committed local youth in the SEED team made it much easier to work in difficult situations, visit the field at any time, determine the truth of any reported incidents and respond accordingly. An example emerges from the diary of Devendra Chaudhary, a social mobiliser: “I was in Kauwaghari village on June 16th 2002. Military people had surrounded the village to make a search. I did not have an identity card and was very frightened, but the women of the village saved my life by telling the military men that I was their brother. This incident inspired me to be in the field even during difficult times.”

We utilized local knowledge, skills, resources and approaches as a priority during our work. This allowed us to learn from the locals and although had no former experience of working in conflict, we realised that people were the best source of such knowledge.

Witnessing the violence of the conflict close-up, made a deep impression in the minds of children. To ease the life of such children and minimise their mental trauma, children’s clubs were formed in local schools and various programmes and competitions organised. Small children rejoiced in taking part in the peace process and children like Pramila Chaudhary called for peace in their songs.

Pramila Chaudhary sings…
Bring peace in our heart,
Put a pencil in the hands that hold the gun
Studying is my desire, teach me,
Put a pencil in the hands that hold the gun

Sandip Gautam sings……
Nepalese should not have to be displaced,
They should not have to cry due to violence.
We're small today, tomorrow's pillars,
Don't neglect our child right as tillers.

Sushila BK sings….
The coming peace in this nation is far and difficult,
Reading for students is difficult.
Hope peace talk is going to hold,
We need not only democracy, we need peace with justice.

3.4 Threats to work during conflict
SEED, which was born out of conflict, had to tolerate tensions and challenges from both the Maoists and security forces time and time again. On any pretext they tortured SEED staff, ordered them to come to the jungle at night and asked for the detailed information about the organisation’s work. They also threatened to abduct members of the organisation or forbid the organisation to operate if its members did not join their groups. State forces repeatedly conducted searches at SEED and accused its work of being pro-Maoist. Once, when security personnel met the SEED chairperson, they interrogated him, searched his body and bag, inspected his address book and arrested him for an hour, and put psychological pressure on him, on the accusation that he was a Maoist.

In his journal, Bhagi Ram Chaudhary, chairperson of SEED wrote, “It was April 3 2004, representatives of the UN Review Mission and myself were travelling to Kauwaghari by car. Maoists stopped us at Phoolbari-6, Dhakana, and were about to set fire to the jeep: when I told them the purpose of our visit they took no action and even promised to help us. When we began our work, we encountered lots of obstacles. We had to meet with both Maoists and the government administration on the same day to inform them of our work plans, which gave rise to substantial risk. Despite the critical situation, we were successful in accomplishing our objectives since we were working for the victims of both sides and we had a clear vision of what we were doing. We worked without favouritism to either side.”

Even other political parties viewed SEED’s activities negatively. Although SEED had enemies and those suspicious of its motives everywhere, it never flinched from its aims and objectives. Identifying solutions for such external problems, it worked intensively and effectively in the community. To end the conflict and establish peace, SEED worked hard and with great patience between the guns of the warring parties.

Manpur VDC made a room available for SEED to establish an office. When the Maoists destroyed the VDC building in December 2002, the organisation had to bear a loss of about Rs 50,000. SEED demanded compensation from the Maoists, and it received consolation but never the compensation. Eventually, the Maoists begged to be pardoned, which made SEED more confident to work in dangerous circumstances.

4 Stories of conflict victims
4.1 Unfortunate Minas
If a crow crows in the vicinity of a house it is believed to be conveying a message to the house. There is a village named Kauwaghari in Goltokuri VDC, Dang, named after the crow, called ‘Kauwa’ in the Tharu language, because it was the habitat of thousands of crows long ago. Today one can find a settlement of Sarki families rather than crows in Kauwaghari.

On 30 June 2002, the crows in Kauwaghari brought bad news to the locals. A dozen villagers who had been to the local forest were killed on the spot by the army. An 85-year-old man, Sonbir Nepali (Sarki), said: “Our forefathers migrated to Dang from Salyan in 1885. Since then, we made our living with hard work, but whatever the circumstances we were happy. However, God envied the little happiness that was dwelling in the village and forced my aged eyes to see the dead bodies of the twelve youths, who were in their prime with dreams in their eyes.”

He added that, after migrating to Kauwaghari, the Sarkis started earning their living through their traditional occupation of making leather shoes. Then, the exchange value for a pair of slippers was ten pathi (32.5 kg) of rice and for a pair of shoes, a muri (75 kg) of rice
[1] . People used to get three muri of rice as their wage for hammering a horse’s saddle. This was payment enough to sustain the people, but soon after the establishment of Bashbari Shoes Industry the government instituted a tax on leather and the Sarkis were compelled to leave their traditional occupation. They changed to rearing animals, collecting firewood and other work, or as daily waged labourers. Following the cruel murder of twelve innocent men the livelihood of many villagers was disrupted.

This is a story of the family of Resham Nepali, one of the 12 victims. Resham was living with his wife, a son and a daughter, rather than with his parents. After the murder of the only breadwinner in the family, his widow Radha Nepali went through a terrible time, but was unable to go to her in-laws and share her pain.

The three years following the death of her husband was like 30 years to Radha. Her daughter Mina, 10 years old, started helping Radha with household chores, while her son Anil was 4 year-old and going to school. Her children were Radha’s only consolation. She sent her children to school on the morning of 30 August 2005. She used to scold the children if they returned home late from school, but that day she sent the children to play near the house of their grandparents as soon as they were back from school.

Suddenly the horrible news spread through the village that Radha had committed suicide, by hanging herself. Mina and her little brother were instantly orphaned. Now they live with their grandparents. Grandmother Parbati Nepali questions herself all the time, "My son was killed by the security forces, it was his destiny. But I do not understand why my daughter-in-law committed suicide, leaving behind her young children in peril? I am unable to take care of myself, who will care for them?"

Lacking proper care the two orphans, Mina and Anil, look dirty and abandoned. When Mina had boils on her body the family had no money to treat her, and as a result she was unable to go to school for months. Mina, who is now in grade three at a local school says, "We were in great pain when my father was killed, but we were recovering until my mother committed suicide, tortured by her suffering, and the sky fell in on us. Now we have no-one in the world; our children’s club is the only way to forget all the pains of life."

There are many unfortunate children like Mina and Anil in Kauwaghari. Although they were not directly involved in the war, these little ones have become its victims. Now, they have been deprived of everything; there isn’t even a hand to soothe them.
[1] 1 muri = 75 kg, 1 muri = 20 pathi
4.2 Chhali’s wish
Chhali Chaudhary’s heart raced faster the morning of 8 April 2002, when she realised that her house at Mojgaun, Manpur-3, was surrounded by soldiers. The security forces shouted, "Is this Raghupati's house?", and received the answer, "Yes sir, I am Raghupati.” "There is a complaint filed against you, we will release you after we have made some inquires.” With these words, the soldiers took Chhali’s husband away.

After that day visiting the local army barracks in Tulsipur to find out about her husband became a routine to Chhali. At the beginning the soldiers asked her to return after a week, then after a month, then next month, and like this they made her visit the barrack for more than one and half years. Chhali’s only wish was to get a glimpse of her husband, and in the hope of seeing him she used to set off to the barracks whenever the soldiers told her to. But the soldiers never kept their word; more than that every time they called her to the barrack promising to let her see her husband, they exploited her physically.

When Chhali’s belly grew with a baby, people in the village spread rumours about her character, but when the villagers knew the truth, they gave her sympathy. But the local people were never able to criticise the soldiers who took advantage of Chhali’s innocence and exploited her: the situation was too sensitive to speak out against them.

Chhali’s fatherless son is a three year old now and she has other two sons under the age of 12. Her only supports now are Raghupati’s elderly parents: Chhali's 70-year-old father-in-law Tulak Ram Chaudhari says, "They must have killed my son, otherwise there would have been some message or information. It is too painful to live remembering him all the time. Our grandchildren and daughter-in-law are the only means I have to survive.”

Memories of her husband trouble Chhali, but her priority is to ease the life of her family. To this end, she is engaged in various activities. The family doesn’t have any property except the house they live in. They cultivate a small parcel of government land and Chhali does domestic work in the village. Following the freeing of the Kamaiya, her eldest son began working as a ploughman while her second son goes to school. “At least one of my sons would be a big and clever man,” Chhali says.

When organisations, including SEED, advocated for her rights Chhali got some relief from her burden. SEED made efforts to provide for her from the relief fund allocated for conflict victims. However, as a result of not having citizenship and for having had a child after the death of her husband, the VDC secretary conjectured that she may have remarried and denied recommending her.

SEED then advocated for Chhali and succeeded in getting both the recommendation for her and her citizenship. Chhali says, "I never knew how important citizenship was: I got Rs 8,000 simply by submitting an application along with a photocopy of my citizenship to the District Development Committee.” With this, Chhali bought some clothes and a pig. With a smiling face she says, “The pig grew big and I slaughtered it and sold the meat; with the money I celebrated Dashain. Now, saving some more money I am planning to buy two baby pigs.”

Chhali's husband Raghupati Chaudhary was a carpenter. Once, a Maoist relative stayed in their residence for one night and the soldiers assumed that Raghu was also a Maoist and arrested him. “I have heard the government provides substantial compensation to the families of those killed by Maoists, but those of us victimised by the government have got nothing. I may get some support in future,” Chhali states her expectation.

Despite receiving no external support, Chhali is confident that she can fend for her family. "Comparable to me,” she says, “Thousands of women have been widowed by the conflict and have become heads of their families. We are the ones who have to look after our kin, if we lose hope, what would happen to them?” Although God has deceived Chhali, she is fighting with her fate for a better future.

NOTE: Her real name is presented here with her consent.
4.3 Meghi’s pursuit
The villagers of Phoolbari-4, Dang, were in the mood to celebrate Teej with great enthusiasm. The day before the festival a buffalo was slaughtered for a feast and the villagers were dividing its meat amongst them.

Meanwhile, a hullabaloo was heard in the village. A group of soldiers entered the village in an attack formation. They had received information that some Maoists were in the village. Leaving their share of meat many people fled, but those who remained became victims of the soldier’s bullets. In no time, the festival became the funeral of six villagers. The army presumed that list of those receiving a share of the meat was a list of Maoists: even Radio Nepal broadcast that six Maoists had been killed, but the truth was that they were innocent Dalits.

Meghi BK lost her husband in this incident three years ago. Three daughters and a son lost their father; Meghi was in great pain after the incomparable loss. The anvil next to her home always reminded her of her husband but lamentations and tears would not bring her husband back; therefore, she decided not to cry.

Meghi says, "The dead are gone forever, but my crying would hurt my children, so, I always try to smile and stay happy. I even make my children laugh before they go to bed every night.” Meghi’s son could not continue his father’s business, having no experience of it and was also unable to continue his education. With the support of SEED he was sent to the Technical Training Council, Sanothimi for press composing training. He is now trained, but still unemployed.

Ten kattha of land is not enough to sustain Meghi’s family and so her family must do daily waged labour. Two of her daughters, now in high school, work as labourers in their days off. SEED has supported expenses for their stationery, bags and uniforms and they have received a scholarship from the District Education Office: now Meghi has no worries about their education.

After the death of Meghi’s husband, some organisations approached her and invited her to join a feast with other upper castes - although she had been called untouchable in the past. As a result of the contact she had with organisations like SEED, Meghi has been reborn: “At last someone has tried to understand our plight,” she has said.

Be it a protest against untouchability or a group of single women, Meghi is now seen everywhere. She is a member of a single women’s organisation in Dang. While delivering speeches other women talk about their pains and shed tears, but Meghi is always smiling: her smile never fades even if she is talking about her past. She consoles her female friends saying that women without men in the family should take over male roles and do everything they can. It seems as if a smile and Meghi are synonymous.

She is a source of inspiration for other widows in the village. Some allege that she does it for money, but she ignores all these rumours and replies, “We women are relaxed because we don’t care about getting beyond ourselves.”

Meghi is also involved in the ‘equal work for equal pay’ campaign. Maoists pressurised them to quit the campaign, but Meghi consistently fought for their rights and the Maoists let the programme run. Meghi is fighting with all her spirit to provide women an equal wage for their labour.

SEED has written to the NHRC asking for compensation for the six families who lost their innocent loved ones during the incident, including for Meghi. No investigation of the incident has been made so far.

Another asset of Meghi is she can debate logically with anyone, including Maoists or security personnel. Without reservation she openly expresses her opinions even in public. Meghi, who can at least write her name after participating in a six-month long non-formal education class organised by SEED, says, "I am ecstatic when I sign my name in the register." There are few illiterate Dalit women in the country with so much of passion to transform society. People should learn from her optimism and be inspired by Meghi.
4.4 Binita’s plea
Binita Chaudhary, a resident of Urahari-3, Dang, was living a happy life with her husband Buddhi Ram Chaudhary. The couple had no worries about their livelihood as Buddhi Ram was earning enough to support the family.

He had started a business of buying and selling hens in the nearby markets, while most of the Tharu community is engaged in farming which is often a seasonal occupation. Unlike other families in the village the economic condition of the Chaudhari family was improving; their bad days were coming to its end.

On the evening of 23 November 2001, Buddhi Ram came back home from Nepalgunj, where he had gone for his business. The couple had been sharing the joys and pathos of life while drinking ‘Kho ya’, a local wine, when security personnel barged into their home and arrested Buddhi Ram alleging that he had taken part, along with others, in the murder of a Brahmin.

Binita begged for mercy. She pleaded with the soldiers that her husband was innocent. He was not in the village when the incident took place. Clinging to the army vehicles she wailed her heart out and asked them to arrest her along with her husband, but in vain. In no time, her husband was out of sight. She collapsed where she was standing as if someone had swiftly pulled the ground away from her. She kept on staring blankly at the dark road that had taken away a part of her life.

The next morning Binita set off to visit the security office. She recognised a soldier there as one who had taken her husband the previous night. He assured her that her husband would soon be released. “It is just a simple enquiry, he will be free after the formal procedure,” he said. The villagers arrested with Buddhi were released a week later but not Buddhi.

Binita rushed to the security office. Different soldiers had replaced the former officers. When she asked them about her husband, she was told that her husband had never been there. In anguish and betrayal, Binita returned home. It has now been more than four years since she heard anything about her husband. Although years have passed, her feelings remain full of anguish: she still has hope that her husband will return. “God may send him back to me one day," she murmurs time and again.

Despite receiving a hard blow with the disappearance of her husband, she has been struggling alone for survival. Now, Binita is a member of a women’s savings group in Urahari, supported by SEED. She is generating income through vegetable farming and pig rearing. The income generated has helped her sustain her family and send her two children to school. She aspires to do more than seasonal farming. “I want to do something through which I can earn money regularly to support my family," she says.

After all the hardship in her life, Binita is trying to understand her own capabilities and to find her own identity. She walks with dignity and a smiling face but never shows her feelings of being separated from her spouse. Besides the wish of having her husband back, she wishes for the restoration of real peace in the country, “I wish, there could be peace in the country. We would no long hear the news of death and disappearance.”
4.5 Sita’s struggle
When we reached the residence of Sita Basnet of Saruwa Dada, Goltakuri-9, she wasn’t there. She had gone to a nearby forest to feed her goats, but we found two of her daughters playing with dolls in the front yard. When we asked them about their mother they replied, “Mother has gone to the jungle, she will come back later in the evening.”

Sita’s daughters have to mind their home at an early age. In addition to the kitchen chores, Sita has to do everything that a male head of household must do. In 2002, her husband was killed by security forces in a community forest of Motipur, Urahari-6, allegedly because he was a Maoist.

When we asked the youngest daughter, a mere four years old, about her father, she replied, “Father has gone to God’s place. Police killed him and sent him there.”

Widowed Sita is now working as president of Pashupati Women’s Savings Group, formed by SEED. She has reared goats and with her savings she has managed the family’s expenses. The eight kattha of land held in the name of her husband yields rice that is barely enough for six months. For the rest of the year she has to do daily labour to fend for her family. In the event of emergency or sickness, she has to borrow money. SEED has admitted her daughters to a school and is covering all expenses for their education. “Despite all the troubles in life, it is a great relief to me,” she says.

Following the death of her husband Sita is without any support. In her journal she expresses her feelings: “I am not just a widow, but have been afflicted with mental problems throughout my life. Sometimes I have a headache, sometimes a stomach ache, sometimes fever, but when I go to the doctor I am told nothing is wrong. They have advised me to laugh at least once a day. But how can I laugh, when I am overwhelmed by sorrow?”
4.6 Sita Ram on the way to non-violence
When we hear the word Gandharba, the faces of those playing Sarangi, a traditional music instrument of Nepal similar to violin, come immediately into our mind. Probably because he is a Gandharba, an occupational caste specialised in music, Sita Ram was crazy about singing and dancing.

Songs like "Maachi Kaandai le, Maya Laudaima Chekyo Dadai le" can be heard on the radio all the time. It is Sita Ram, who sang the song. He was born at Bayal Dada-7, Salyan. His childhood was spent in forests instead of schools, since he was born into a Dalit family in a remote hill area. He spent most of his childhood in Rolpa, at his maternal uncle’s home, and was married there, before migrating to Naya Basti, Hapur-7, Dang.

Sita Ram won the hearts of many people in Dang with his singing, and became well known. He won the ‘Third National Dohari Competition’ in 1984, worth Rs 7,000. As the winner, he even had a chance to visit Canada, but being remote from the bureaucrats someone else was sent in his place. Sita Ram, disheartened by the incident left his home and abandoned his singing career to join the Police force, where he worked for 14 years from 1991 to 2005. Softhearted Sita Ram was in turmoil whenever he received orders from his superiors to kill people, but thanks God for never actually having to kill anyone. Benevolent Sita Ram left the service just two years before he became eligible for a pension.

After 14 years in the Police, Sit Ram was still unable to build a house for his family. His friends, who joined the police after him, built houses in towns, but he returned home with only his provident fund. With this money he built a small house at Sundarbasti, Tulsipur-3, where he lives with his wife, three sons and a daughter.

Sita Ram was no longer in his traditional occupation, but when he left his police job he was worried about fending for his family. But he did not give up. He started working as a daily waged labourer. He learned to build houses in a very short time, and now earns Rs 180 per day constructing houses, and this is enough to feed his family.
-
Sita Ram has 62 medals and certificates, awarded to him for his singing, kept safely at his home, but he says, “These things won’t feed me and my family now. People have to accept whatever comes in life.” Sita Ram’s greatest hope is to see stable peace in Nepal. He says all Nepalese should have enough to eat after their hard work, sleep happily and peacefully and live in safety. “Fighting between brothers will yield nothing to anyone.”


4.7. Sabitra’s loyalty
The husband of Sabitra KC was in the police force and during the time of the insurgency she always worried that something might happen to him. She never had a good night’s sleep thinking about her husband’s safety.

"We have enough farm land, leave your job,” she used to tell her husband all the time. In response to her appeals, her husband Tej Bahadur KC left his police job and was living happily with his family in Tarigaun, Dang. Sabitra and their three-year old daughter were very happy to have Tej Bahadur at home.

Tej Bahadur was living apart from his parents, and so there were no family tensions; they had a small and happy family. But the happiness did not last: Maoists murdered Tej Bahadur in broad daylight, on 25 June 2002 when he had gone to his neighbouring village, Bangaun. He could not escape death, despite leaving his job.

Sabitra was widowed, but made up her mind to work hard in life for their daughter. But even this little hope was threatened, when her mother-in-law began torturing her with claims that she caused Tej Bahadur’s death. She even started questioning Sabitra’s chastity and loyalty to her husband, but there was no one to speak for Sabitra in the village.

One afternoon, when Sabitra had gone to bathe, the mother-in-law broke into her house and took away everything she had, including the furniture. When Sabitra inquired about it, the mother-in-law only taunted her. Not able to bear it, Sabitra had to leave the home where she had spent happy days with her husband.

Now she is living with her parents in another village. Her husband’s eight kattha of land lies barren. She has not been able to return to her village to work the land. “What can you do when your own family becomes your enemy?” she asks.
5 Conclusion
Dang is one of the districts worst affected by the conflict. Its headquarters, Ghorahi, was brutally attacked by Maoists on 23 November 2001: three days later the government declared an emergency in the country, which in Dang lasted four years. The district remained consistently in the headlines of national newspapers because of the brutal incidents occurring there. Dang is considered one of the principle territories of the Tharu community and many Tharus were badly affected by the conflict. Dalits and other marginalised communities were also highly affected.

The simple people, who never knew the meaning of the emergency, became the targets of the guns of the security forces, at festivals or in forests and for no reason. Even those who were simply thatching their roofs were brutally murdered. These innocent people who were killed by the state, are still considered as Maoists by the government that has made no effort to investigate and find the truth. Even the 12 people from Sarki, identified as innocents by the NHRC and eligible for Rs 50,000 compensation, have received nothing to date.

After the deaths of the male heads of the family, who were the breadwinners, women with low economic status are having trouble to feed their children. Unable to bear the pain of their husbands’ deaths, some women like Radha Nepali have committed suicide. On the other hand, some widows like Meghi BK are leading social transformation. There are women who were physically abused by security personnel when looking for their missing husbands. Doctors have failed to identify the disease that has afflicted women like Sita Basnet, who have lost their beloveds. Doctors have advised them to laugh, but not having the medicines that could aid them to laugh, these women are living in a pool of tears. Women, whose husbands were killed by the Maoists, like that of Sabitra KC, are treated cruelly even by their own family. Although we see few women killed during the conflict, they are the ones who are most affected by it.

6 Recommendations
The government should provide interim relief as recommended by the NHRC as soon as possible to the families of the twelve persons, including Dev Bahadur Sharki of Kauwaghari village, who lost their innocent family members to the security forces.

The government should immediately conduct the necessary investigations and provide justice and compensation to the victims of mass killings, whether perpetrated by Maoists or security forces.

There should be a government provision for the education of conflict-affected children.

The government should arrange psychosocial counselling for women victims of the conflict.

The government should help families victimised by the conflict to manage.

NGOs should conduct reconciliation programmes to minimise the desire for vengeance that has engulfed society.

Civil society should create pressure at the local level to provide justice to victims.


Afterword: Following publication of the Nepali edition of “Sighs of the conflict”
After publication of the Nepali edition of this book, we saw the following changes.


1)Twelve families of victims in Kauwaghari village received Rs. 10,000 each from the Chief District Officer in August 2007 although National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) originally recommended that the CDO should provide Rs. 50,000 to each as compensation.

More coverage has been seen in local and national media of victims’ voice and of their situation, more articles published in the print media and conflict victims gaining a forum to share their experience.

2)All victims filed a petition at the District Administration Office and Human Rights Commission to demand compensation and justice.

3)The Nepal Bar Association has made a commitment to provide free legal aid to conflict victims.

4)More NGOs are supporting conflict victims.

5)SEED's programme coverage has increased:

When this book was published SEED had only one long-term and one short-term partner. We now have three major programmes: a women’s rights programme, a Quality Education programme for conflict affected children, and a right to primary education programme; all as a result of long term partnerships. Before we were limited to villages in five VDCs of Dang district but now the volume of our work will increase: we are now working in 11 VDCs and 1 municipality.

Before publication of “Sighs of the conflict” we were working only for women’s empowerment and income generation and other very short initiatives. Now our programme is focusing on organizing people, capacity building for right holders, education campaigning, research and publication, media advocacy, income generation, building construction, campaign for equal wage for equal labour, anti-discrimination campaign etc..


References:

Ganyari. Tharu Newspaper
Kantipur Rastriya Dainik, 18 September 2006
Kantipur Rastriya Dainik, 29 September 2006Naya Yugbodh, 2006. National Daily


Central Bureau of Statistics. 2003. National Census 2001
Chaudhary. Mahesh. 1994. Telawa Monthly.
District Development Committee of Dang. 2006. District Profile Dang 2005/06
Gopal. Dahit. 2005. Short Introduction of Tharu Culture.
INSEC. 2003. Nepal Human Rights Year Book 2003.
INSEC. 2004. Nepal Human Rights Year Book 2004.
INSEC. 2005. Nepal Human Rights Year Book 2005.
INSEC. 2006. Official Profile.
Tharu Santram Dhar Katuwa. 2005. Chitkal Bawana.

紛争の爪あと-ダン郡での紛争の影響と生活再建の試み-

シュリラム・チョウダリ&バギラム・チャウダリ著
目次

出版によせて
序文
著者まえがき

1. 記録プロジェクトの背景、目的、方法

2. ダン郡の地形と歴史、紛争の影響
2-1. 地形と歴史
2-2. 紛争の影響
2-3. 紛争被害の実態
2-4. ダン郡で起きた事件

3. 紛争解決に目覚めた青年たち
3-1. SEEDの誕生
3-2. 活動内容
3-3. 活動の特徴:紛争被害者と共に働き、彼らから学ぶ
3-4. 紛争下での活動に伴う困難

4. 当事者が語る紛争の現実
4-1. ミナたちの運命
4-2. チャリの生きる希望
4-3. メギの勇気
4-4. ビニタの願い
4-5. シタの苦闘
4-6. 殺し合いのない国に-シタラム
4-7. サビットラに対する姑の裏切り

5. おわりに

参考文献
出版によせて
「社会が変化し、発展するためには、紛争は避けられず、受け容れなければならない」。そんなことを紛争に巻きこまれた人たちの前で軽々しく言うことができるでしょうか。

この本は、ネパール西部のダン・デウクリ盆地で、殺し合いに巻き込まれ、傷を負った人たちの苦悩や苦闘を、シュリラム・チョウダリさんたちがまとめたものです。ここに登場する犠牲者の遺族は皆、紛争当事者 とは関係のない人たちです。電柱として使うための木を森に探しに行く途中で国軍 に殺害された12人のダリット(不可触カースト)の人々、収穫後の12月に米の脱穀を終えて家で貯蔵作業中に国軍に殺害された人々、祭りの日のごちそう用に水牛の肉を切り分けている時に国軍の誤射で亡くなったタルーなど先住民族の青年たちです。

夫を国軍に殺されたラダ・ネパリは、10歳の娘と4歳の息子を残して自殺しました。このような話を聞くと、心にガラスの破片が突き刺すような痛みを感じます。野蛮な者たちの戦いに、罪も無く巻きこまれ、打ちのめされた、無力な遺族たちのことを想像してみてください。家族の大黒柱を国軍によって奪われた後、生活の糧を失ってしまった遺族たちはどのように生きているのでしょうか。ダン・デウクリ盆地の遺族たちの苦しみや悲しみ、そして彼らの奮闘は全国の紛争被害者たちに共通するものです。

政府とマオイストの和平協定により、現在ネパールは停戦状態となっています。少なくとも武器を持つ者たちは、誰も殺したり、誘拐することができません。過去に国軍の横暴さが国民から非難された時、「軍隊の威信を落とすことは許されない」と言い訳した首相や政治家たちは今、政策や方針は変わったと自らに言い聞かせています。マオイスト党首のプラチャンダは、紛争は終わったと宣言しており、ネパールは新しい時代に入ったと言っています。政府側も、マオイスト側も、ネパールは今、世界の見本となる平等な社会を目指して新らたな政治を行い、スイスやシンガポールのような繁栄を達成して世界を驚かせることができる、と主張しています。紛争で両親を亡くし孤児となった子どもたちが、スイスやシンガポールの生活を夢見るかどうか定かではありませんが、政府は、彼らに冷えた体を温めるセーターを与え、空腹を満たし、病いを癒すことを最優先に行うべきです。それがこの本が訴えていることでもあります。

2006年11月
ネパール・キルティプール市
トリプヴァン大学社会人類学部               
ダンバル・チェムジョン
序文
2001年11月23日、ダン郡の郡庁所在地ゴラヒにある国軍司令部をマオイストが攻撃しました[i]。事件から3日後、政府はネパール全土に非常事態を宣言し、外出禁止令を出しました。他地域で非常事態宣言が解除された後も、ダン郡では断続的に4年半もの間、夜間外出禁止令が出されていました。その間に起きた事件の記録から、この『紛争の爪あと』という本が生まれました。関係者のプライバシーに配慮して、事件と直接関係のある写真は掲載していませんが、私たちSEEDの活動地で起きた事件をもとに、紛争で混乱する市民たちの暮らしや思いをここに記録しています。11年前に始まった紛争は、2006年11月21日にマオイストと政府の間で和平協定が成立し、平和構築のために関係者による努力が続けられています。これは非常に喜ばしいことです。いつか再び非常事態宣言が出されることがないように祈りましょう。

紛争の苦しみを経験した子ども、青年や女性、そして彼らを支援する仕事をしてきた団体の職員たち、彼らすべての協力により生まれた本書は私にとっても特別な意味があります。本書はそのような人々でも本を書くことができること示し、彼らに自信を与えるでしょう。そして、また一般の方々にもSEEDの活動を理解していただく機会になると思います。本書の出版により、勇気を持って自らの苦悩を公にする紛争被害者が増えていくと私は信じています。

本書のための取材は、関係者にとって全く新しい仕事であり、初めての試みでもあったので、かなりの精神的重圧になったかと思われます。しかし、彼らの忍耐強い、命がけの仕事のおかげで、本書は出版されることになりました。取材班のリーダーであるシュリラム・チョウダリさん、メンバーのアムリタ・チョウダリさん、レカ・サハさん、プルナ・チョウダリさん、デベンドラ・チョウダリさん、アプサラ・パリヤルさん、マン・バハドゥル・チョウダリさん、サントス・チョウダリさんに感謝します。そして取材に応じて下さった方々にも感謝の気持ちでいっぱいです。彼らは自らの人生経験を公にすることに協力してくれました。

本書の出版を支援して下さった庭野平和財団、「平和のための市民による紛争の記録プロジェクト」のコーディネーター、田中雅子さんにお礼を申し上げます。出版費用だけでなく、取材に関する助言や、技術面でも支援もしていだきました。また、編集の段階で助言をくれた親友クリシュナ・サルバハリさんに心より感謝します。今後も皆様から支援、助言をいただければ幸いです。

ダン郡 トゥルシプル市
SEED会長バギラム・チョウダリ

[i] 2001年7月、政府とマオイストは停戦を宣言し、8月から和平交渉を行っていたが、11月23日のゴラヒ攻撃で、マオイストは停戦を破棄した。11月26日、政府は国家非常事態宣言を発令し、マオイスト掃討作戦として当時の王室ネパール軍を全面展開させた。
著者まえがき
平和は人類にとって最も大切なことですが、一方で、紛争もまた人間が起こす社会変化だという側面があります。歴史をさかのぼって見ると、世界は古代から大きな紛争と変化を繰り返しています。これは自然なことです。社会のあらゆるところで暴虐や不正行為が激化しており、恒久の平和のためと称して正当化される紛争は避けることができないと言われています。事実、社会変化を促すのは一般市民であり、民衆への圧力が社会変化を引き起こします。しかしながら、歴史には一般の人々の貢献はめったに書かれることはなく、政治家や紛争を起こした者たちの行動、歴史だけが記録されるのです。民衆の血、汗、貢献が扱われることはほとんどありません。このような想いから、SEEDはこの小さな本を通じて、ダン郡の人々の記録を始めました。この調査と記録によって、少しでも多くの人々が次の世代に自分たちの紛争体験を公表する勇気を得ることを願っています。

SEEDの理念は、民衆の心の声に支えられており、貧しいダリットや先住民族を側面から弁護することを活動目的にしています。この小さな本には、彼らが過去に背負った苦境についてのエピソードが記録されています。紛争により困窮状態にある子どもや女性たちの経験を、とりわけ多く取り上げました。紛争の状況下で、彼らはどうやって心の平静を保つことができたのか?彼らはどのように生活し、他の人々に平和に生きていくすべを教える勇気を持ち続けることができたのか?このような疑問への答えがこの本には書かれています。

この本を読んだ後、必ずや読者は、紛争の中でダンのタルーやダリットがどのような恐怖を味わったのか、現実のものとして感じることができるでしょう。この本には、小さな子どもたち、女性たち、青年たち―彼らの紛争状態における生活、歌、話、絵が紹介されています。これらに接することで、調査をした私たちも力づけられました。

この本は、高い教育を受けた者だけが物を書き、本を出版できるのだという先入観を変えるものと信じています。それだけではありません。紛争によって被害を受けた子どもと女性たちの身の上に現実に起きている苦難を聞く中で、こうした記録活動を継続する必要性を感じました。そして苦難の経験者自らが記録活動に関わったことで、彼らも知識や技術を得ました。

SEEDは紛争下で活動をしてきましたが、記録と本の出版の面ではとても遅れています。そんな中、「平和のための市民による紛争の記録プロジェクト」で技術面、財政面で支援をしてくださった庭野平和財団と、そのコーディネーターの田中雅子さんに感謝します。彼女の支援なしではこの出版は不可能でしたし、紛争で心の傷を負った子どもや女性たちの声が外に出ることもなく、私たちの記録活動の成果もノートや非公式な報告書という形でしか残らなかったでしょう。そしてこの記録の協力者アムリタ・チョウダリさん、レカ・サハさん、プルナ・チョウダリさん、デベンドラ・チョウダリさん、アプサラ・パリヤルさん、マン・バハドゥル・チョウダリさん、サントス・チョウダリさんに深く感謝の気持ちを表したいと思います。

本の編集で貴重な時間を費やしてくださった、クリシュナ・サルバハリさんに心から感謝します。そして本のために貴重な時間を費やし、序文を書いてくださった文化人類学者のダンバル・チェムジョンさんにも感謝します。この活動に直接または間接的に関わってくれた子どもたち、女性たちを含めすべてのダンの市民にこの本を捧げます。
 
「平和のための市民による紛争の記録プロジェクト」
ダン郡チームリーダー
シュリラム・チョウダリ
1. 記録プロジェクトの背景、目的、方法
紛争とその実態については世界中で無数の本が出版されていますが、紛争当事者か、あるいは紛争とは直接関わりのない研究者が書いている場合がほとんどです。そのような本には、一般の市民の視点からの記録はごくわずかしか含まれていません。どんな紛争も人々に困窮をもたらし、そうした経験を記録する必要があると考えられていますが、そのような本はあまり見受けられません。

とりわけネパール国内にはそのような本は全くありません。だからこそ、貧しく、力のない、底辺で生活をする人々の思いを記録するのは重要な仕事です。そんな思いから、「ダン郡における紛争の影響と生活再建の試み」というテーマで本を書く作業を始めました。

<目的> 
私たちの調査の目的は4つありました。
1) 紛争被害者の生活実態と彼らの経験を記録する。
2)紛争の実態と平和構築のための活動を記録する。
3)記録活動で学んだことを分かち合う。
4)記録活動を通じて紛争被害者を力づける。

<方法>
この本は、紛争被害者の日記や体験談、事件の調査など直接的な観察をもとにしています。事実関係を確認し、さらに真実に近づくために、過去に出版された本や報告書も参照しました。

<調査地>
学術研究ではなく市民の記録なので、調査地域を選択するにあたって、私たちが普段活動しているところで調査を始めることにしました。SEEDがダン郡で活動している場所を選択しました。私たちが自身が出かけて行って、記録の過程で助言をすることができるからです。

<参加者> 
この記録活動のためだけの特別な調査グループは結成しませんでした。調査地域の子ども、女性、成人、老人たち自身が参加者になりました。ただし、記録活動がうまく進むように、チームリーダーと記録を担当するボランティアを募ることにしました。
 
紛争の被害を受けた人たちから協力の意思を取りつけると、私たちは実際に記録活動に参加するボランティアを選びました。地域の住民であること、可能な限り紛争被害者であることを条件に、最近高等学校卒業資格試験を合格した者から、12年生の学生までを対象としました。彼らは2006年7月29日、ダン郡のトゥルシプール市に集まり、研修を受けました。『平和のための市民による紛争の記録プロジェクト』のコーディネーター田中雅子さんが彼らに日記や文章の書き方を指導をしてくれました。研修によって調査グループの意欲が高まりました。そしてこれまでに行ってきた活動が整理され、確実なものとなり、記録活動の助けとなりました。
2. ダン郡の地形と歴史、紛争の影響
2-1 . 地形と歴史

ダン郡は首都カトマンズから400キロメートル、バスで約12時間のところにあります。ダン郡は海抜213メートルから2,048メートルの高さにあります。郡の面積は29万5000ヘクタールです。ダン郡の地形はユニークで、ふたつの盆地の合流点になっています。そのひとつはダン盆地、もうひとつはデウクリ盆地です。ダン盆地はマハバーラト山地とチュレ丘陵[i]の間にあり、デウクリ盆地はチュレ丘陵とドゥダワ丘陵の間に広がっています。郡内は北部の山地と接する丘陵地帯、チュレ丘陵とそれに囲まれた低地、内部タライの3つに区分されています。

ダン郡には39の村とふたつの市があります。人口は46万2380人です(2001年国勢調査)。うち男性は22万8958人、女性は23万3422人です。民族・カースト別に見ると、タルーが14万7328人、チェトリが10万5146人で、マガルが5万5711人、丘陵地出身のバフンが4万8806人と続きます。ダリットも5万人弱[ii]、他にサンヤシ、ヤダブ、タクリ、ムスリム、ネワールなどが住んでいます。

新石器時代からこの郡にはタルーが住んでいました。デビット・セドンによるとタルーはここに約30万年前から住んでいるとのことです[iii]。「ダン」という郡の名前は、約5千年前にここを統治していたタルーの王様、ダンギシャランに由来しています。

ダン郡は歴史、考古学、経済、政治、社会、文化のすべてにおいて特徴のある場所です。ダンはタルーが暮らしてきた肥沃な土地です。ネパールで土地改革が行われる前はタルーだけが住んでいました。しかし、マラリア撲滅事業[iv]が実施されると、彼らはこの地域から移動し始めました。政府が1912年に測量を実施する前は、ダンの土地所有者の9割がタルーでした。時が移り変わり、タルー以外の人々が移住して来ると、政治的な力をもつ彼らがタルーの土地を奪ってタルーを債務労働者カマイヤとし、タルーとそれ以外の民族が対立するようになりました。これがダンにおける紛争の歴史の始まりです。自分たちが失った土地の権利を奪い返すためにタルーは苦闘しました。土地獲得運動の先導をしながら、「土地は耕す者のものだ!家はその壁を塗った者のものだ!」と、スローガンを大きな声で叫んだ、ダンの農民主導者グムラ・タルーは1960 年7 月21日、統治者によって射殺されました。

このようにタルーに対する多くの抑圧、残虐、搾取の長い歴史があります。これに対し、タルーの政治家たちはパンチャヤット制[v]が始まった頃から、彼らの権利のために命がけで抗議を行ってきました。しかし、タルーは利益を得ることはできませんでした。利益を得るのは新たに土地所有者となったタルー以外の者だけでした。1990年以降の政治の変化が起きても、タルーは何も獲得できませんでした。搾取と謀略による変化があり、物事の核心には何も変化はありませんでした。このためタルーたちの間で、国と統治者に対する憎悪が増していきました。

2-2. 紛争の影響
当初ダンではマオイストの影響はそれほどありませんでしたが、マオイスト発祥の地であるロルパ、ルクム、サルヤン郡の近くでもあり、マオイストにとっては戦略上の拠点だったので、その影響も次第に増していきました。政府による一般市民への統制が、マオイストの活動を一層激しくしました。戦いが激しくなると、国とマオイストはダンで自分たちの影響力を誇示し合い、競い合うようになりました。その争いの犠牲者はダンの貧しいタルーやダリットなど、権力を持たない人々でした。

2001年11月23日、マオイストがダン郡の郡庁所在地ゴラヒを襲撃しました。この事件で14人の国軍兵士を含む37人の治安要員が死亡しました。ここでマオイストは多くの武器を獲得するのに成功しました。この襲撃で、政府との和平交渉は決裂しました。政府は11月26日にネパール全土に非常事態宣言を出したため、さらなる緊張が生まれ、ダンの治安は悪化しました。興奮状態でやってきた武装警察官は、郡のさまざまな場所で力づくの治安維持活動を始めました。

そんな状況下、非常事態宣言が出て5日も経たない間に、国軍がダン郡のバルガッディ村で11人の罪のないタルーの農民を殺害しました。報復のためにマオイストが有志を集めた結果、地元タルーの青年たちはマオイストの兵士として参加しました。素朴なタルーの人々が住んできた村は戦場へと変わりました。四方八方で泣き叫ぶ声がしました。

2-3. 紛争被害の実態
国家人権委員会が2006年8月30日に公表した統計によると、2001年以降、ネパール全体で936人が行方不明となっています。うち(当時の)政府側によって行方がわからなくなった人は563名、マオイスト側によって行方不明となった人は315名、どちらかわからない人が58名となっています。ダン郡では、政府によって行方がわからなくなった者が66名、マオイストによる者が2人、計68人の消息がわかっていません。

<死亡者数>
ネパールの人権団体INSECによると1996年2月13日から2006年9月9日までにダン郡で合計686人が死亡しています。うち、国軍によって殺された人の数は422人で、うち女性10人、男性312人、残り100人の性別がわかっていません。マオイスト側によって殺された人の数は264人で、女性7人、男性257人となっています。この統計で両者ともに男性の死亡者が多く、国軍はマオイストの倍以上の人を殺していることがわかります。

-----------------------------------女性/男性/性別不明/合計
国軍の攻撃による死者------ 1 0人/312人/100人/422人
マオイストの攻撃による死者 7人/257人/-/264人
合計------------------------------ 17人/569人/100人/686人
 
<死亡者の民族・カースト別内訳>
最も死亡者が多いのは、チェトリです。この地域の研究者バラト・ダハル氏によると、チェットリの人々は代々、治安関係の仕事に就くことが多く、マオイスト、国軍の両者の兵士として死亡者が多く見られるからです。最も人口の多いタルーは、死亡者数では2番目に多い200人です。ギャン・ジョティ小学校のメガ・ラジ・ギミレ校長は、その理由として、マオイスト、国軍の兵士にもタルーがいるからだと言います。また知識人たちは、国側が一般のタルーをマオイストだと疑い、罪のない人々を殺す事件も少なくないからだと見ています。


カースト/ 郡の総人口(2001年) /死亡者の数(2006年まで)
チェットリ/105,146人/220人
タルー/147,328人/200人
マガル/55,711人/88人
ダリット(カミ、ダマイ、サルキの計/44,921人/78人
丘陵地出身バフン/49,906人/58人
ネワール/4,094人/14人
その他/55,274人/28人
合計/462,380人/686人

[i] インド国境に近いタライ平野の一部には、山地から流出する河川が運んだ地層からなる急峻な地形チュレ丘陵がある。その南側をタライ平野、丘陵によって囲まれた北側の低地をインナータライ(内部タライ)と呼ぶ。
[ii] 郡別人口統計では、カミが24346、ダマイが12349人、サルキが8226人という統計があるが、バディ等、他のダリットの人口の詳細は不明。
[iii] 開発学者、David Seddonの著作を引用していると思われるが、出典不明。
[iv] 1960年以降に実施され、丘陵地からタライ平野への移住奨励政策につながった。
[v] 1959年にマヘンドラ国王が導入した、国、県、郡、市町村各レベルの評議機関パンチャヤットが全国を統治する仕組み。1990年の民主化まで続いた。
2-4. ダン郡で起きた事件
<カリャン村事件>

2001年11月23日ダンの郡庁所在地ゴラヒで起きたマオイストによる攻撃で、国側は2001年11月26日、トリブパン市第3区バルガッディ村の貧しいタルーの農民に怒りをぶつけました。カリャン地区で地主との折半で農作物を配分していた農民を、マオイストだと決め付け、一度に11人を殺害したのです。この事件でジャグマン・チョウダリ、シタラル・チョウダリ、クリシュナ・チョウダリ、アサラム・チョウダリ、チョナ・チョウダリ、チズ・チョウダリ、ビクラム・チョウダリ、ラクシマン・チョウダリ、クシラム・チョウダリ、ソンラル・チョウダリ、プラサド・チョウダリが死亡しました。

<ウルハリ村ディリラジ暴行事件>
2002年4月1日深夜1時、突然ドンドンとドアを叩く音で、ウルハリ村に住む58歳のディリラジ・アディカリは目を覚ましました。「誰だ?」と彼は尋ねました。「ダイ(兄貴)、ちょっと下に来てくれ」という声は、彼には知り合いのように聞こえました。村の誰かに何かあったのかと、彼は急いで下に降りようとしました。「こんな夜遅くに何で外に行くの?」と息子の妻が止めましたが、彼は「すぐ戻って来るよ。村の誰かに何かあったらしい」と言って、下に降りてドアを開けました。ドアの外にはマオイストが集団で立っていました。マオイストは「お前にちょっと用がある」と言って、家から少し離れた村の交差点まで連れてゆき、激しい暴行を加えました。彼は両足と背中を骨折しました。治療費は家族が3万5千ルピーを支払い、残りは政府が負担しました。治療をして彼は生き延びることはできましたが、身体に障害が残りました。マオイストは彼を国側のスパイと疑って暴行したのでした。その後、支援を受けることもできないままディリラジ・アディカリは現在、2人の息子夫婦と孫3人と一緒に、障害者生活を送っています。

<ペンデャ祭事件>
2001年12月9日、ラクシミプル村のベルワで、タルーの農家が米など穀物の収蔵を祝うペンデャ祭を行っていました。朝から食べたり飲んだりした後、夜は歌ったり、踊ったりしていました。その時でした。家の周りを国軍が包囲し、突然発砲して11人が死亡しました。事件後、直ちに国軍は、罪のない村人たちを、外出禁止令を破ったマオイストだという声明を出しました。

<わら葺き屋根事件>
2002年6月17日、ベラ村のカトゥベルワで人々が屋根のわらを葺き始めていたところ、軍の調査団が村人7名を拘束しました。そのうちチャトゥク・バハドゥル・チョウダリとガネシュ・チョウダリが拳銃によって殺害されました。残りのウダヤラム・チョウダリ、ハリラル・チョウダリ、ケダルナト・チョウダリ、ダニラム・チョウダリ、ビムバハドゥル・チョウダリはマソト川で殺害されていました。
 
<ラジャコット村ジャングル事件>
ゴルタクリ村カウワガリの人たちは、2002年6月30日、村に電気をひくため、電柱になる木を切りに森へ行きました。村人たちは3つのグループに分かれてジャングルに入りました。これらのグループには一般人を含め、村落開発委員会の委員もいました。ジャングルに行く途中の道で、ラジャコット・タワー(通信塔)の警備をしていた兵士と2番目のグループが遭遇しました。最初のグループは先に進んでいて、もう一つのグループは後ろにいました。兵士は斧を持っていた彼らをマオイストだと決めつけ、自分たちの基地へ連れて行きました。

村人たちは自分たちの名前、住所、仕事、森へ行く理由を言いました。そして自分たちがマオイストではないことを証明するため、ラジャコット・タワーにいる知り合いの兵士の名前も言いました。しかし、「運命は神様でさえ止められない」と言うように、兵士たちの疑惑を解くことはできませんでした。彼らは服を脱がされ、目隠しをされ、12人が拳銃で殺害されました。死亡者はすべてサルキ(ダリットのうち皮革職人のカースト)の人々でした。基地に連行された村人の一人、ソバラム・ネパリは絶壁から飛び降り、逃亡に成功しました。彼がこの事件の証言者です。死亡者の遺体は返されず、遺族にさらに悲しみを与えました。死亡者の中で未婚者は1人、結婚したばかりという人が1人、10人が結婚していて子どももいました。

事件直後から、SEEDの協力でデブ・バハドゥル・サルキをはじめ、12人の犠牲者の遺族が国家人権委員会に損害補償のために嘆願書を出しました。2005年5月17日、委員会は村人たちは無実であるとの判決を下し、遺族に補償金としてそれぞれ5万ルピーを支払うよう国に命じました。SEEDはダンの役所に補償金を遺族に与えるよう働きかけましたが、まだ支払われていません。そのため、その後も引き続き国家人権委員会に申し立てを行っています。
 
一家の稼ぎ手を亡くした家族は混乱に陥りました。少しでも家族の支えになるようにという目的で、SEEDが編み物と絵の3か月間の研修を行いました。研修では、彼らに悲しみを共有する機会を与えました。そして彼らは自分の子どもや自分のためのセーターを編むことができるようになりました。SEEDは遺族の子どもたちが学校に行けるよう、必要な制服も準備しました。このように自分の子どもが学校に行くことができるようになると、遺族も少しずつ生きる意欲が湧いていきました。

SEEDは、山羊や豚の肥育や畑仕事、小商いなどのように、彼らに必要な職業の訓練や支援もしました。仕事を始めると、家の中での小さな問題も自分たちで何とか解決できるようになりました。村では人権教育も始めました。これらの支援で、村人たちに悲観的な姿勢から前向きな姿勢への変化を促しています。

<ティージ事件>
ラジャコット村ジャングル事件の約2ヶ月後、フルバリ村のバクレで2002年9月8日にもう一つの大きな事件が起きました。村人たちは、ティージという祭りのためにごちそう用に水牛を切り、肉を分け合っていました。その時、国軍はマオイストの一集団を追跡していました。マオイストたちは、その肉を分けていた村人たちの近くの道を通って逃げていったので、国軍は村人たちをマオイストだと思い込み6人に発砲しました。ラムクマル・ネパリ、トプバハドゥル・ビカ、マノジ・ネパリ、チュダマニ・シュレスタ、ダルム・ネパリ、トプ・バハドゥル・ネパリはその場で死亡しました。国軍はそこにいたプナラム・ビカとバクタ・バハドゥル・ネパリに穴を掘らせ、死者を埋めさせました。そして、この2人にも暴行を加えました。薬の治療では良くならず、2003年10月にプナラム・ビカ、同年11月22日にバクタ・バハドゥル・ネパリも死亡しました。このようにして、この事件では計8人が犠牲となりました。

<ハリラル・ダンギ殺害事件>
2004年5月22日、フルバリ村のダマルに住む45歳のハリラル・ダンギにマオイストたちは約1時間の道を歩かせ、ダクナ村に連れて行き、明け方4時頃、首を切り殺害しました。彼は森林管理委員会と学校運営委員会の委員長でした。マオイストから、公共の森林と学校の予算に絡む贈収賄容疑、スパイ容疑をかけられていました。現在、彼の4人の娘と1人息子、妻は村で苦労しながら生活しています。

3. 紛争解決に目覚めた青年たち
3-1. SEEDの誕生

2001年11月23日のゴラヒ襲撃後、国はマオイストに対して厳しい取締りと諜報活動を始めました。一方で、マオイストも国のこのような姿勢に対抗するため、さまざまな場所で繰り返し事件を起こしました。立て続けに起きた上述の事件が、地元タルーの青年たちの心を動かしました。なぜなら、犠牲者の大部分がダリットやタルーなど貧しい人々だったからです。国やマオイストは、なぜ、ただでさえ貧しいダリットや先住民族を紛争に巻き込むのか、自分たちの目の前でこのような事件が起きているのに見て見ないふりをすることができるのか、ということを深く話し合うようになったのです。このような話し合いのなかから、問題意識に目覚めた青年たちは、皆で協力して紛争の解決のために活動することを決意し、SEEDが誕生しました。

Society For Environment Education Development (SEED)は非営利組織として2001年に設立されました。設立の年にカトマンズで社会福祉協議会に登録し、2003年にはダン郡のNGO連合会とNGO調整委員会に登録をしました。その主な目的は、人々の意識を向上させ、彼らの生活を改善し、権利の確保のために人々を組織化することです。SEEDが支援するのは紛争犠牲者、貧困層、ダリット、孤児、寡婦、老人といった人々です。活動分野は、平和、ガバナンス(良き統治)、初等教育、子どもの権利です。

設立以来、SEEDは社会を深く分析し、広い視野を持ち、地域社会や一般市民、国内・国外の組織と協力しながら紛争の解決に努めてきました。その結果、貧困の原因を解決できなければ紛争の解決もできないという認識のもとに、貧困削減と紛争解決のための様々な活動を行っています。

危険な環境のなかで紛争被害者のための活動を開始するにあたって、SEEDは村落開発委員会の人々と、支援の方法について何度も話し合いました。紛争が頻発する最中での活動はとても危険でした。どのように危険を最小限に抑えるか、常に意識しなければなりませんでした。地域の人々の助言と提案により、小さな規模でSEEDは活動を開始しました。

3-2. 活動内容
2001年から2003年にSEEDは、マンプル、ディクプル、ハルワル、ウルハリの各村落開発委員会から活動資金を得ました。他に、ゴルタクリとフルバリの村落開発委員会も活動に協力する意思を表明しています。村人の知識や技術を積極的に活用して、紛争被害者のために活動する計画を立てました。それは、紛争で被害を受けた女性のための3か月間の初級編み物研修と絵の研修でした。これら6つの村落開発委員会で、紛争の被害を受けた女性たちを一箇所に集めて、悲しみを共有する機会を与えたのです。この最初の活動で、私たちは、紛争被害者の心の痛みを理解し和らげることができました。

先住民開発基金(National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities: NFDIN)は 、SEEDがタルーの調査を行っていることに注目し、SEEDと共同でタルーの歴史をまとめました。この活動により、タルーの歴史を収集し記録する仕事ができました。こうして、地域レベルや国レベルの組織、さらには国際的な団体とも仕事をする機会が増えていきました。アクション・エイド(イギリスを代表する国際NGOのひとつ)とSEEDの協力による、ダン郡の持続的な平和と安全のための活動は、現在まで続いています。

さらにSEEDは、2003年から2004年までDFID(イギリス政府国際開発援助庁)の地域支援活動に協力し、経験を増やす機会を得ました。2003年にはUNDP(国連開発計画)の、平和と開発のための短期事業に協力しました。2005年には、日本のNGOであるシャプラニール=市民による海外協力の会と、解放後のカマイヤ(債務労働者)たちの経験交流集会と相互訪問研修を行いました2006年7月からは、セーブ・ザ・チルドレン・ジャパンと紛争犠牲者の子どものための教育活動を行っています。この他、郡開発委員会や保健所、ラプティ眼科病院とも一緒に活動しています。
 
3-3. 活動の特徴:紛争被害者と共に働き、彼らから学ぶ
紛争被害者、貧しい村人、ダリット、そして先住民族を支援することは、非常に困難で、私たちにとって危険を伴うものでした。マオイスト側と国軍側の双方の紛争被害者を公平に支援するにはどうしたらよいのか、私たちは問い続けました。

SEEDの活動方法の特徴は以下のようにまとめられます。
・紛争下で他団体の活動が制限されている場合でも、紛争被害者、貧しい村人、ダリット、 先住
 民族に対し資金・物資面および精神面での支援を続ける。
 ・組織の中央委員、幹部、メンバーは人口比に応じて、ダリット、先住民、女性から構成される。
 ・登録開始時から村落開発委員会と協力関係を築く。
 ・地元の人々の技術や能力を使って、紛争解決のための活動を行う。
 ・紛争被害者たちの中でも被害を最も多く受けた女性や子どもを中心とした活動を行う。
 ・他団体の支援が届かない、僻地や恵まれない貧しい地域で活動する。
・他者を信じることができなくなってしまった紛争被害者たちが、団結できるようになるための環境 
 を整える。
 ・紛争被害者たちに再び苦痛を与えるのではなく、希望を与える活動を行う。
・女性のグループ活動支援を通じて、紛争被害者が自らの苦痛と喜びを分かち合う機会を作る。
 
紛争犠牲者の家族の顔合わせでは、人々はたくさんの悲しい経験や苦悩を語り合いました。そうやってSEEDは日々、紛争被害者たちに少しずつ近づいていきました。私たちが活動を始めたばかりの頃、女性や子どもたちは、悲しい経験を語り合うための集まりでも、自己紹介をする時に他の方を見たり、下を向いたりし、なかには全く話せないこともありました。何人かの子どもたちは、知らない人を見た途端、国軍やマオイストが来たと思って、家のなかに隠れることもありました。

紛争被害者たちは見知らぬ人々と話をすることを好まず、こちらが会話を始めても、発言せずに涙を流すだけでした。そんな時は、慰め、励まし、辛抱強く彼らから話を聞き出す以外、なすすべがありませんでした。しかし、ゆっくりと話し合いながら、すべての参加者と親しくなり、信頼関係ができると、彼らとSEEDの関係も近づきました。そうやってSEEDはいつでもどこでも彼らと自然に活動ができるようになりました。不安を見せず、常に彼らを弁護し、彼らの心や表情にどうやったら喜びを取り戻すことができるかを考えながら、私たちは前進を続けました。

地域の人々の信頼を得て良い関係を築けば、私たちはどんな環境でも活動できます。地域と協力しながら活動することで、住民と私たちの距離はとても近くなりました。村で何か事件が起きても、すぐに報告し、すぐさま状況を判断して、話し合い、助け合うので、私たちの活動は順調に発展してきました。地域の人々と情報を交換したり、警告したり、伝達するためのシステムをつくったので、私たちの活動に対しても彼らから信頼を得ることができたのです。
 
SEEDは、地元の青年たちのチームを設けて、紛争下の厳しい条件のなかでも野外での調査など様々な活動を行っています。そのような過酷な任務に伴う苦痛や困難について、ソーシャルワーカーのデベンドラ・チョウダリさんはある日の日記にこう書いています。「2002年6月16日、私は調査のためにカウワガリ村に赴いた。村は国軍に取り囲まれていたが、私は身分証明書を携帯していなかったため、いったいどうなることかと、とても恐ろしかった。しかし村の女性たちが、この人は私たちの村に住んでいる人です、と言って救ってくれた。この体験を通じて私は、紛争下の厳しい条件でも活動を続ける自信を得たのだった」

私たちは、地域の人々の知識や技術を私たちの活動計画に取り入れ、重要な手段として活用しました。そのため、過去に紛争下で活動した経験がなくても、人々から教えられながら活動を続けることができました。一般の人々が知識の源でした。紛争に関わる事件を目の前で見た子どもたちは、その脳裏に深い傷跡を残しています。そのような子どもたちが、普通の環境で毎日を過ごすことができるようにと、学校で子どもクラブを結成し、さまざまな行事を始めました。ある行事のときに「ラリグラス子どもクラブ」のプラミラ・チョウダリが、平和について、次のように唄いました。
  私たちの国に平和を持ってきて
  銃を持つ手でペンをつかんで
  勉強するのが私の望み、私を学校に行かせて
  銃を持つ手でペンをつかんで・・・

サンディプ・ゴウタムも唄いました。
  ネパール人が外国へ行かないように
  悲しみの涙を流さないように
  今日の私たちは小さいけれど明日はリーダー
  子どもの権利を守ろう
 
スシラ・ビカをはじめとする3人の子どもたちが一緒に唄いました。
  この国に平和が来るのは難しい
  子どもが学校に行くことは難しい
  話し合いをしてください
  民主主義だけではなく、平和の種をまいて
 
これだけではありません。子どもたちのこのような歌、詩、小説などの作品を使った「子どもカレンダー」も出版されています。

3-4. 紛争下での活動に伴う困難
私たちの団体は、もともと紛争下で誕生しましたが、その後も、マオイストから何度もいわれのない嫌がらせを受けました。理由もなく、小さな口実を作っては、昼夜を問わず、遠くのジャングルの奥まった場所に呼び出し、わたしたちの活動について詳細な報告を迫りました。「私たちの部隊に登録しなければ、どんな仕事もさせない。さもなければスタッフを暴行する。私たちの部隊と協定を結び、仕事をしなければいけない。さもなければ活動禁止だ」、などと脅迫し、精神的苦痛を与えました。そして政府側も治安部隊が何度も私たちを調査し、気に入らないことがあると厳しく接しました。ある日、SEEDのリーダーが活動地域を訪ねた時に、道で偶然出会った国軍は、彼を尋問して鞄やポケットを調べ、手帳を取り上げて電話番号を調べました。彼をマオイストではないかと疑い、1時間拘束し、精神的苦痛を与えました。

SEEDのリーダー、バギラム・チョウダリはある事件のことを日記に次のように書いています。「2004年4月3日だった。私たちがジープで活動地のカウワガリに向っていると、フルバリ村のダカナで、マオイストが私たちのジープを止めて火をつけようとした。私がSEEDの活動について説明すると、彼らはジープに火をつけるのを止め、私たちに協力することさえ約束した。しかし実際には、この日から私たちの活動はとても困難なものとなった。なぜなら毎日マオイストと会って、私たちのすべての活動について詳細な報告をしなければならず、組織の運営についても詳細に陳述しなければならなくなったからである。このように大変危険な状況にもかかわらず、私たちが行うそれぞれの活動について目的をはっきりさせ、地域社会のなかで中立な立場で犠牲者遺族のために活動を行ったので、逆境のなかでも私たちは活動を続けることができたのだった」

他の政党も私たちの活動を疑いの目で見ていました。このように四方八方から困難な状況に追い込まれた時も、SEEDはその目的と目標を見失いませんでした。外部の問題に対しては粘り強く解決の手段を探し、社会のために役立つことだけを考えて活動を続けてきました。危険な状況下でも冷静に二つの銃の間に留まって、紛争解決のために努力してきました。

SEEDのためにマンプル村の村落開発委員会が事務所内の部屋を提供してくれました。ところが2002年11月、マオイストが村落開発委員会事務所を攻撃し、SEEDの資財5万ルピー相当も損害を受けました。SEEDは損害賠償を要求しましたが、マオイストはSEEDの損害に同情はしたものの、賠償しようとはしませんでした。しかし最後にはマオイストも謝罪の意を伝えてきました。この出来事で、SEEDは危険な状況下でも活動を続ける自信を得たのです。

4. 当事者が語る紛争の現実
4-1. ミナたちの運命

「家の止まり木で鳴くカラスは、何かの知らせを持ってくる」とネパールの人々は信じています。ダンのゴウタクリ地区にカウワガリという村があります。タルーの言葉で「カウワ」はカラスを意味します。そこは昔、何千ものカラスが棲みつくようになり、村の名前がカウワガリとなりました。現在はサルキ(丘陵部の皮革職人カースト)が定住しています。

2002年6月30日、カウワガリでカラスは悲しい知らせを運び、鳴きました。その地域の森に入っていた12人の村人を国軍が銃殺したのです。当時を思い出しながら85歳のソンビル・ネパリ(サルキ)は言います。「私たちの先祖は1885年頃サルヤン郡からダン郡に移住した。様々な苦労も乗り越えてきた。でも神様は見守ってくれなかった。村の夢多き12人の若者たちが一瞬にして帰らぬ人となるのを、この目で見なければならなかったのだから」

ダン郡に移住した後、サルキはサンダルや靴などの革製品を作って売りながら生計を立てていました。ソンビルは自分の過去を思い出して話します。「その頃は靴一足で1ムリ(約75キロ)の米と交換できた。馬の鞍をひとつ打てば3ムリ(約225キロ)の米が手に入った。仕事は年中あり、生活にも困らなかった。だが政府がバンスバリに靴工場を作ると、皮にも税金がかかるようになった。それで、カウワガリのサルキたちは先祖代々営んできた靴・サンダル作りをやめた。それからは、日雇い労働をしたり、薪を売ったり、豚やヤギを飼って生活するようになった。それでも何とか生活は成り立っていた。しかし、2002年6月30日、国軍が12人の村の若者を殺害してから、その家族の生活はめちゃくちゃになった」

死亡した12人の中のひとり、レサム・ネパリには娘と息子がひとりずついました。レサムの妻ラダ・ネパリは、その後もなんとか子どもたちを育てようとしましたが、一家の稼ぎ手を亡くした家族を支えるのはとても大変でした。レサムは幼い頃に父母とは離れ離れになったため、ラダは舅、姑のところにも行きませんでした。

夫が殺されてからの3年間はラダにとって30年間にも感じられました。この3年間で娘のミナは10歳になり、家の手伝いもできるようになりました。息子アニルも4歳になり学校に行くようになりました。ラダはタケノコの新芽のように育つ子どもを見て傷心を慰めていました。2005年8月30日、ラダが子どもを少し早く学校に送り出しました。これまで学校から遅く帰ってくると怒るラダが、その日に限って「学校から帰ってきたら向こうのおじいさんの家の方で遊んでね。」と娘に言いました。

昼間、村に突然悲しいニュースが広がりました。ミナの母ラダが、家で首つり自殺をした知らせは草原の火事のように瞬く間に村中に広まりました。ミナと4歳の弟アニルは両親を失い、孤児となりました。彼女たちは現在、祖父母と一緒に暮らしています。ミナの祖母パルパティ・ネパリはこう言って悲しみを吐露します。「私たちは軍に息子を突然殺された。そのうえ、なぜ嫁までこの子たちを置いて自分の命を捨てなければいけなかったのか。この歳になって私は自分の面倒を見ることさえ大変だというのに、どうやって孫の世話までしろと言うのだろう」

孤児になったミナとアルニは適切な養育を受けられず、服は汚れ、体には掻き傷が見られます。ミナは体中に発疹ができていますが、治療費がありません。発疹のせいで学校に行くこともできません。小学校3年生のミナは言います。「お父さんが軍に殺されたときは、とっても悲しかったです。やっと悲しみを忘れられたと思ったころにお母さんが自殺しました。私たちのような孤児はこれからいったいどうしたらいいのでしょう。今、悲しみを忘れられるのは、私たちが作った子どもクラブで活動している時だけです」

カウワガリ村には、ミナやアニルのような不幸な子どもたちが他にもたくさんいます。紛争とは無関係な子どもたちが餌食になっているのです。彼女たちの心の傷を癒す薬はあるのでしょうか。
4-2. チャリの生きる希望
2002年4月8日の朝、突然国軍に自分の家を囲まれた時、チャリ・チョウダリの心臓はドキドキと鳴りました。
「ラグパティの家はここか?」
「はい、私です、ラグパティは」。
「お前は訴えられている。尋問が終わったら帰してやる」。チャリの夫ラグバティにそう言うと、国軍は彼を連れて行きました。

その後チャリは毎日、自分の家からトゥルシプルの国軍駐屯地に行き、夫の行方を捜しました。「数日後に来なさい」、「2週間後に来なさい」、「今日じゃなく明日来なさい」、「あさってなら絶対に会わせてあげよう」。軍はこのように言い続け、一年半もの時が流れました。

チャリはいつもひとつのことだけを考えていました。夫の顔を一度でいいから見たいと。そのため、軍にいつ呼ばれても良いように準備していました。夫のこと以外何も考えられませんでした。ある意味では彼女は慎重さにかけていました。軍の兵士たちは、夫に会わせると言って、チャリを毎回別の場所に連れて行き、性的暴行を繰り返していたのでした。

彼女のお腹が大きくなり始めると、村で噂が流れ始めました。いきさつがわかると、村人はチャリに同情しましたが、軍への抗議の声が発せられることはありませんでした。その頃の状況では、誰も軍に歯向かうことはできなかったのです。

父親のわからないその息子は現在3歳になりました。彼女には他に7歳と10歳の息子がいます。年を取った舅、姑が彼女の唯一の支えとなっています。70歳のチャリの舅トゥルカラム・チョウダリは言います。「息子は殺されたのだろう。そうでなければ何か知らせが来るはずだ。帰ってこない息子を思っていつまでもくよくよせず、これからは孫と嫁の顔を見ながら暮らしていこう」
 
チャリにも夫の記憶がよみがえります。しかし夫がいなくても、暮らしは立てていかなければならないので、彼女は毎日奔走しています。家の敷地以外には彼女の土地はありません。村の西のはずれの河原にある、所有者のない土地を、少しだけ耕しています。チャリは村で他の家で皿洗いもしています。長男は地主のところで小作をしながら暮らしています。そうやって稼ぎながら、二男は何とか学校に通わせています。彼女は言います。「少なくとも息子の一人くらいは賢くなってもらわなくては」

SEEDを含めいくつかの組織が彼女を弁護し、彼女の心の重荷は少し取り除かれました。紛争犠牲者遺族のために村落開発委員会の救済基金をもらえるようSEEDが働きかけました。しかし、チャリは自分の市民権証がなく、夫の死後に子どもを産んだことで、他の人と結婚したと思われ、村落開発委員会の事務長は市民権証を発行するための推薦状を書いてくれませんでした。
 
そこでSEEDが正しい情報を伝え、身元引受人となり、推薦状をもらい、チャリが市民権証を得るための手助けをしました。チャリは言います。「私は市民権証の必要性さえ知りませんでした。政府機関でどんなサービスを受けるにも市民権証が必要のようです。村落開発委員会に請願書と市民権証のコピーを提出し、私は8千ルピーの支援を得ました」

チャリはそのお金から衣料品を買い、豚を飼いました。彼女は笑みを浮かべて言います。「豚を大きく育ててダサインの時に売りました。そのお金はダサイン(ネパールの祭のひとつ)の買い物に使いました。お金を貯めて他に2匹の子豚を飼うつもりです」。
 
チャリの夫ラグパティ・チョウダリは一介の大工でした。夫の親族でマオイストと関わりのある人が一泊家に泊まったので、国軍はラグパティもマオイストと関係があると考えて捕まえたのでした。「マオイストに家族を殺された人は、政府からたくさんのお金をもらえると聞いています。でも国軍に家族を殺された遺族はほとんど何ももらえません。政府はそのような人も支援すべきです」。チャリはそう主張して支援を訴えます。

政府から支援を受けなくても彼女には家族を養う気力があります。「私のような何千もの女性は紛争によって寡婦となっています。そうなると、女性が一家の大黒柱です。私たちが絶望したら、誰が子どもの面倒を見るのですか」。たとえ神様がチャリの人生を惑わせても、明るい未来になるように彼女は運命と闘っています。

(注)チャリさん自身の許可を得て、本書には実名を載せています。
4-3. メギの勇気
フルバリ村の村人たちはティージ(ネパールの祭のひとつ)を祝うことに夢中になっていました。ティージの前日で、水牛を切って肉を分配していたのです。その時、村は突然喧騒に包まれました。軍が、村にマオイストが入ったという情報を得て、攻撃体勢に入ったのです。村人たちは肉の分配をやめて逃げました。しかし何人かは国軍の発砲の犠牲となりました。犠牲となったのは村人6人でした。肉の配分のために作られたリストを、国軍はマオイストのリストと決めつけたのです。ラジオのニュースは軍がマオイストを殺害したと伝えましたが、死亡者はすべて罪のないダリット(不可触カースト)の人々だったのです。

これは3年前の事件です。メギ・ビカの夫もその事件で亡くなりました。彼女は寡婦となりました。娘3人と息子1人は父親の愛情を奪われました。メギは何ヶ月かの間、夫を亡くした悲しみに沈んでいました。家のそばの鍛冶小屋が彼女に夫を思い出させました。しかし夫を思い出し、泣いて過ごしても夫が帰ってくることはありませんでした。メギは決心しました。「もう私は泣かない。泣いて暮らして私の悲しみは消えない」

メギは言います。「死んでしまった者は戻ってきません。私が泣けば子どもたちも悲しみます。だから私はいつも笑っているよう努力します。夜、寝る時も子どもたちに話をしながら、笑わせて寝かせます」。メギの息子は父親の鍛冶屋の仕事を続けることができません。父親は息子に鍛冶屋の仕事を教えていなかったからです。SEEDは、学校に行けず家にいたメギの息子に、バクタプル郡サノティミにある職業訓練所で植字工の訓練を受けられるように協力しました。しかし訓練は受けたものの、まだ職を得ることはできていません。

家を含めた10カッタ[i]の土地だけでは、メギの家族は食べていけません。彼女の家族は日雇い労働をしています。高校に入った二人の娘も土曜の休日に働いています。彼女たちの文具、鞄、制服などはSEEDが支給しました。郡教育事務所からも奨学金を受けています。そのため、娘たちの教育費の心配はありません。

夫が殺された後、いくつかの援助団体がメギの家族について調査し、食事会に招待しました。招待の連絡を受けた時、メギは新しい生活が始まったように思えました。彼女は言います。「ようやく、何人かの人たちが私たちの悲しみを理解する努力をしてくれたのです」
 
ダリットや寡婦の集会があると、メギ・ビカはいつでも参加します。彼女はダンの寡婦グループのメンバーでもあります。他の女性は演説をしながら、悲しみや苦しみに涙を流します。しかし、メギは演説でも笑いながら話します。男性の役割を私たち女性がやっていかなければと自分と同じ境遇の女性たちに言い聞かせます。彼女のいるところにはいつも笑いがあるかのようです。

夫を殺された他の女性たちにも彼女は笑いを届けます。そんな彼女を中傷する人もいます。どうせどこからか金をもらっているんだろう、特別な援助を受けているんだろう、あちこち遊びまわっている・・・。しかし、メギはこのような話を片方の耳からもう一方の耳に聞き流します。彼女は笑いながら言います。「私たち女性は家の中にだけいて世間から取り残されています。私まで家の中にじっとしていたら、他の女性たちは私が話しているようなことをいつになったら聞けると言うの?」

女性の権利を守るため「同一職種、同一賃金」の運動にもメギは参加しています。マオイストが行事を妨害し、女性の活動代表者に仕事を辞めさせようとしました。メギはそれに反論しました。「これは私たち女性にとって大切な活動よ。マオイストが女性の活動をやめさせるなら、女性もマオイストの活動を応援しないわ。それでもいいの」

メギ・ビカのもうひとつの特徴と言えば、彼女の議論のスタイルです。村にくるマオイストたちにも心を開き、自分の話をすることができます。国軍とも目を合わせながら話をすることができます。SEEDによる6ケ月の識字教室で名前が書けるようになったメギは言います。「出席帳にサインすることができて私は自分で驚いています」。村のダリット社会では、メギのように普通に読み書きができ、社会の再建について話しながら村を歩く女性はごくわずかです。メギ・ビカの前向きに考えながら生きる人生を、みんなが学ばなければいけません。
 
SEEDは、メギ・ビカの夫を含む殺害された無実の村人6名の家族から、国家人権委員会宛に、補償金請求の手紙を出しましたが、皮肉にもこの事件の調査はまだ行われていません。

[i] 1カッタは約337平方メートル